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Queen Jane died the next year shortly after the birth of their son, Edward , who was undisputed heir apparent to the throne. Elizabeth was placed in her half-brother's household and carried the chrisom , or baptismal cloth, at his christening.
It was painted for her father in c. Elizabeth's first governess , Margaret Bryan , wrote that she was "as toward a child and as gentle of conditions as ever I knew any in my life". Under Grindal, a talented and skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek.
The Venetian ambassador stated in that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each appeared to be her native tongue". The couple took Elizabeth into their household at Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis that some historians believe affected her for the rest of her life. Elizabeth rose early and surrounded herself with maids to avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront her husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in.
Twice she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth, and once held her while he cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces". Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued scheming to control the royal family and tried to have himself appointed the governor of the King's person.
She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour and "comfort him in his sorrow", [29] but Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was not so saddened by her stepmother's death as to need comfort. Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House , would admit nothing. Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Sir Robert Tyrwhitt , who reported, "I do see it in her face that she is guilty". Jane was proclaimed queen by the privy council , but her support quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days.
On 3 August , Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side. Mary, a devout Catholic , was determined to crush the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform. Mary's initial popularity ebbed away in when she announced plans to marry Philip of Spain , the son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and an active Catholic. In January and February , Wyatt's rebellion broke out; it was soon suppressed.
Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence. Mary's closest confidant, Charles V's ambassador Simon Renard , argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Stephen Gardiner , worked to have Elizabeth put on trial. Instead, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to Woodstock , where she was to spend almost a year under house arrest in the charge of Sir Henry Bedingfeld.
Crowds cheered her all along the way. If Mary and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply. When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one believed any longer that she could have a child.
She was a better ally than the chief alternative, Mary, Queen of Scots , who had grown up in France and was betrothed to the Dauphin of France. By October , Elizabeth was already making plans for her government. Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir on 6 November , [43] and Elizabeth became queen when Mary died on 17 November.
The speech contains the first record of her adoption of the medieval political theology of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and the body politic : [45] My lords, the law of nature moves me to sorrow for my sister; the burden that is fallen upon me makes me amazed, and yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey His appointment, I will thereto yield, desiring from the bottom of my heart that I may have assistance of His grace to be the minister of His heavenly will in this office now committed to me.
And as I am but one body naturally considered, though by His permission a body politic to govern, so shall I desire you all I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished". She was then presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.
The pelican was thought to nourish its young with its own blood and served to depict Elizabeth as the "mother of the Church of England". She was a Protestant, but kept Catholic symbols such as the crucifix , and downplayed the role of sermons in defiance of a key Protestant belief. The queen therefore sought a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans , who were pushing for far-reaching reforms.
Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the time, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England rather than the more contentious title of Supreme Head , which many thought unacceptable for a woman to bear. The new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May All public officials were to swear an oath of loyalty to the monarch as the supreme governor or risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the persecution of dissenters practised by Mary.
At the same time, a new Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at church and the use of an adapted version of the Book of Common Prayer compulsory, though the penalties for recusancy , or failure to attend and conform, were not extreme. Although she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this are not clear. Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put her off sexual relationships.
Her last courtship was with Francis, Duke of Anjou , 22 years her junior. While risking possible loss of power like her sister, who played into the hands of King Philip II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir.
Their friendship lasted for over thirty years, until his death. In the spring of , it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood friend Robert Dudley. However, William Cecil , Nicholas Throckmorton , and some conservative peers made their disapproval unmistakably clear. In , he finally married Lettice Knollys , to whom the queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure and lifelong hatred. After Elizabeth's own death, a note from him was found among her most personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting.
The queen called him her "frog", finding him "not so deformed" as she had been led to expect. By , relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Members urged the queen to marry or nominate an heir, to prevent a civil war upon her death. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to raise taxes in Having previously promised to marry, she told an unruly House: I will never break the word of a prince spoken in public place, for my honour's sake.
And therefore I say again, I will marry as soon as I can conveniently, if God take not him away with whom I mind to marry, or myself, or else some other great let happen. William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem. In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin, a goddess, or both, not as a normal woman.
In , she spoke of "all my husbands, my good people". Catholics accused Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled the nation along with her body. In , she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her own apartments. In , she was mysteriously bedridden with an illness that caused her body to swell. Mary boasted being "the nearest kinswoman she hath".
Both proved unenthusiastic, [] and in Mary married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley , who carried his own claim to the English throne. The marriage was the first of a series of errors of judgement by Mary that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unpopular and was murdered in February by conspirators almost certainly led by James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell.
Shortly afterwards, on 15 May , Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary about the marriage, writing to her: How could a worse choice be made for your honour than in such haste to marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged with the murder of your late husband, besides the touching of yourself also in some part, though we trust in that behalf falsely.
The Scottish lords forced her to abdicate in favour of her son James VI , who had been born in June James was taken to Stirling Castle to be raised as a Protestant. Mary escaped from Loch Leven in but after another defeat fled across the border into England, where she had once been assured of support from Elizabeth.
Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch; but she and her council instead chose to play safe. Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years. Mary was soon the focus for rebellion.
In there was a major Catholic rising in the North ; the goal was to free Mary, marry her to Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk , and put her on the English throne. Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne, but from the Ridolfi Plot of which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Norfolk, to lose his head to the Babington Plot of , Elizabeth's spymaster Sir Francis Walsingham and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her.
By late , she had been persuaded to sanction Mary's trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot. The sincerity of Elizabeth's remorse and whether or not she wanted to delay the warrant have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians. The exception was the English occupation of Le Havre from October to June , which ended in failure when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port.
An element of piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the queen had little control. It also extended Spanish influence along the channel coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England to invasion. The outcome was the Treaty of Nonsuch of August , in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch.
The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action. Her strategy, to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army, while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland, [] had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester's, who wanted and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign.
Elizabeth, on the other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy". Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands, [] which so far she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester: We could never have imagined had we not seen it fall out in experience that a man raised up by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by us, above any other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a sort broken our commandment in a cause that so greatly touches us in honour And therefore our express pleasure and commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, you do presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to do in our name.
Whereof fail you not, as you will answer the contrary at your utmost peril. The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving soldiers. Her unwillingness to commit herself to the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Dutch politics led to the failure of the campaign.
Elizabeth was raised much like any other royal child. She received tutoring and excelled at languages and music. After her father's death in , Elizabeth spent some time under the care of her stepmother Catherine Parr. Tensions with Parr over Parr's new husband, Thomas Seymour, led Elizabeth to return to the royal estate at Hatfield, away from the court.
Her relationship with Seymour later came under scrutiny, and Seymour was tried for conspiring to wed Elizabeth in a bid to gain power. Found guilty, Seymour was executed. Elizabeth and Mary were declared to be illegitimate as their father sought to pave the way to the throne for Edward, his male heir. The girls were later reinstated as potential heirs.
Edward VI died just six years later, in Mary Tudor and their cousin, Lady Jane Grey , both were in line for the crown. Edward had appointed Grey to be his successor. Her reign proved to be very short: Mary gained the support of the English people and unseated Grey after only nine days on the throne.
Even though Elizabeth supported Mary in her coup, she was not free from suspicion. A staunch Roman Catholic, Mary sought to restore her country back to her faith, undoing her father's break from the Pope. While Elizabeth went along with the religious change, she remained a candidate for the throne for those who wanted a return to Protestantism.
In , Thomas Wyatt organized a rebellion against Mary in the hopes of making Elizabeth queen and restoring Protestantism to England. His plot was uncovered, and Mary quickly imprisoned Elizabeth. Although Elizabeth disputed any involvement in the conspiracy, her sister was not wholly convinced.
Although she was soon released, Elizabeth's life was firmly in her sister's hands. Wyatt was executed, but he maintained that Elizabeth was not aware of the rebellion.
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Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch; but she and her council instead chose to play safe. Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years. Mary was soon the focus for rebellion.
In there was a major Catholic rising in the North ; the goal was to free Mary, marry her to Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk , and put her on the English throne. Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne, but from the Ridolfi Plot of which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Norfolk, to lose his head to the Babington Plot of , Elizabeth's spymaster Sir Francis Walsingham and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her.
By late , she had been persuaded to sanction Mary's trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot. The sincerity of Elizabeth's remorse and whether or not she wanted to delay the warrant have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians. The exception was the English occupation of Le Havre from October to June , which ended in failure when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port.
An element of piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the queen had little control. It also extended Spanish influence along the channel coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England to invasion. The outcome was the Treaty of Nonsuch of August , in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch. The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action.
Her strategy, to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army, while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland, [] had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester's, who wanted and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign. Elizabeth, on the other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy". Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands, [] which so far she had always declined.
She wrote to Leicester: We could never have imagined had we not seen it fall out in experience that a man raised up by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by us, above any other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a sort broken our commandment in a cause that so greatly touches us in honour And therefore our express pleasure and commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, you do presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to do in our name.
Whereof fail you not, as you will answer the contrary at your utmost peril. The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving soldiers. Her unwillingness to commit herself to the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Dutch politics led to the failure of the campaign. A combination of miscalculation, [l] misfortune, and an attack of English fire ships on 29 July off Gravelines , which dispersed the Spanish ships to the northeast, defeated the Armada.
Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 August. Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in one of her most famous speeches : My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourself to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm.
Elizabeth's hand rests on the globe, symbolising her international power. One of three known versions of the " Armada Portrait ". When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle.
The English took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen. But her Majesty did all by halves, and by petty invasions taught the Spaniard how to defend himself, and to see his own weakness. Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it herself, "to be transported with an haviour of vainglory". The English fleet suffered a catastrophic defeat with 11,—15, killed, wounded or died of disease [] [] [] and 40 ships sunk or captured.
It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports. The subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.
He withdrew in disarray in December , having lost half his troops. In , the campaign of John Norreys, who led 3, men to Brittany , was even more of a disaster. As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders. Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support.
In his absence, a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at Craon , north-west France, in May The result was just as dismal. Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January Henry abandoned the siege in April. Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile, and in places virtually autonomous, [n] Irish population that adhered to Catholicism and was willing to defy her authority and plot with her enemies.
Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England. During a revolt in Munster led by Gerald FitzGerald, 14th Earl of Desmond , in , an estimated 30, Irish people starved to death. The poet and colonist Edmund Spenser wrote that the victims "were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same". To her frustration, [o] he made little progress and returned to England in defiance of her orders.
He was replaced by Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy , who took three years to defeat the rebels. O'Neill finally surrendered in , a few days after Elizabeth's death. Russia Elizabeth continued to maintain the diplomatic relations with the Tsardom of Russia that were originally established by her half-brother, Edward VI. She often wrote to Tsar Ivan the Terrible on amicable terms, though the Tsar was often annoyed by her focus on commerce rather than on the possibility of a military alliance.
Ivan even proposed to her once, and during his later reign, asked for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised. Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm in maintaining exclusive trading rights with England. He declared his kingdom open to all foreigners, and dismissed the English ambassador Sir Jerome Bowes , whose pomposity had been tolerated by Ivan.
Elizabeth sent a new ambassador, Dr. Giles Fletcher, to demand from the regent Boris Godunov that he convince the Tsar to reconsider. The negotiations failed, due to Fletcher addressing Feodor with two of his many titles omitted. Elizabeth continued to appeal to Feodor in half appealing, half reproachful letters.
She proposed an alliance, something which she had refused to do when offered one by Feodor's father, but was turned down. Trade and diplomatic relations developed between England and the Barbary states during the rule of Elizabeth. He never returned to England. This territory was much larger than the present-day state of Virginia , extending from New England to the Carolinas.
In , Raleigh returned to Virginia with a small group of people. They landed on Roanoke Island , off present-day North Carolina. After the failure of the first colony, Raleigh recruited another group and put John White in command. When Raleigh returned in , there was no trace of the Roanoke Colony he had left, but it was the first English settlement in North America.
For a period of 15 years, the company was awarded a monopoly on English trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first expedition in The Company eventually controlled half of world trade and substantial territory in India in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Prices rose and the standard of living fell. One of the causes for this "second reign" of Elizabeth, as it is sometimes called, [] was the changed character of Elizabeth's governing body, the privy council in the s. A new generation was in power. The struggle for the most powerful positions in the state marred the kingdom's politics. Lopez, her trusted physician. When he was wrongly accused by the Earl of Essex of treason out of personal pique, she could not prevent the doctor's execution, although she had been angry about his arrest and seems not to have believed in his guilt.
And as nothing is more dear to us than the loving conservation of our subjects' hearts, what an undeserved doubt might we have incurred if the abusers of our liberality, the thrallers of our people, the wringers of the poor, had not been told us! During the s, some of the great names of English literature entered their maturity, including William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe. Continuing into the Jacobean era , the English theatre would reach its peak.
They owed little directly to the queen, who was never a major patron of the arts. Elizabeth gave Edmund Spenser a pension; as this was unusual for her, it indicates that she liked his work. In fact, her skin had been scarred by smallpox in , leaving her half bald and dependent on wigs and cosmetics.
Many of them are missing, so that one cannot understand her easily when she speaks quickly. She became fond and indulgent of the charming but petulant young Earl of Essex, who was Leicester's stepson and took liberties with her for which she forgave him. After Essex's desertion of his command in Ireland in , Elizabeth had him placed under house arrest and the following year deprived him of his monopolies.
He intended to seize the queen but few rallied to his support, and he was beheaded on 25 February. Elizabeth knew that her own misjudgements were partly to blame for this turn of events. An observer wrote in "Her delight is to sit in the dark, and sometimes with shedding tears to bewail Essex.
His political mantle passed to his son Robert, who soon became the leader of the government. Since Elizabeth would never name her successor, Robert Cecil was obliged to proceed in secret. James's tone delighted Elizabeth, who responded: "So trust I that you will not doubt but that your last letters are so acceptably taken as my thanks cannot be lacking for the same, but yield them to you in grateful sort".
Neale's view, Elizabeth may not have declared her wishes openly to James, but she made them known with "unmistakable if veiled phrases". In February , the death of Catherine Carey, Countess of Nottingham , the niece of her cousin and close friend Lady Knollys , came as a particular blow.
This would give Henry complete power over matters ecclesiastical. This revolutionary step was made possible by the emergence in Europe at this time of a new branch of Christianity that rapidly gained the name of Protestantism. This had very important doctrinal differences to Catholicism, but Henry's prime concern was ousting the power of the Pope. In many ways the new English Church remained essentially Catholic. But the change of official religion known as the Reformation had far reaching effects on England.
For centuries, monks, nuns and friars had been an integral aspect of English life, but with the old Church, this way of life came to an end. The monasteries were closed, and the monks, nuns, and friars, were forced into the towns and cities.
They were granted a life pension so that they could look after themselves, and many found a new livelihood, but others fell into poverty and became beggars. In the January of he married Anne Boleyn, who was already expecting his child. In the July of that year, although heavily pregnant, Anne was given a magnificent coronation. She and Catherine of Aragon were the only ones of Henry's wives to be formally crowned Queen of England.
Both Henry and Anne believed with their whole heart that the child she was expecting was a boy, and they had every reason to as the philosophers and astronomers assured the jubilant king that this time he would have a son. All the signs, they said, told them the baby was going to be a great ruler.
That could only mean one thing: a boy. But the baby born on the 7th of September proved to be a girl. This was disastrous, and no one felt the disaster more than Henry. He had moved mountains to marry Anne, had overridden the Pope, the Emperor, lost friends, lost the Church that he had once been a proud defender of, torn down the abbeys and monasteries, and put men to death whose only crime was their faith; all for what he already had, a daughter.
He felt the humiliation deeply, and felt once again that he had not been blessed by God. There was little celebration at baby Elizabeth's birth. Bonfires were lit through out the land but with little enthusiasm. Anne Boleyn was unpopular. Many blamed her for the religious changes in the land and for the king's rejection of Catherine, who they had loved. However, Elizabeth was given a magnificent Christening at Greenwich when she was only three days old.
Read a contemporary account of Elizabeth's christening From Elizabeth's birth onwards, Henry's feelings for the woman he had once loved passionately began to cool. His attention was taken by the other attractive ladies surrounding her, and he was openly tired of Anne's company.
But while Anne was still Queen of England, Elizabeth's life was comfortable. She had been granted her own household at the Royal Palace of Hatfield, and her mother saw to it that she was well cared for. Amongst those attending the new Princess was her half sister, Princess Mary, now Lady as she was made illegitimate at the annulling of her mother's marriage to the King.
Only the heir to the throne could be prince or princess in England, and as an illegitimate offspring, Mary was no longer in line to the throne. This was a cruel twist of fate, and Mary understandably resented having to serve the daughter of the woman who had replaced her mother.
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